Defer normal map generation to reduce GPU model upload stalls by ~50%

Each loadTexture call was generating a normal/height map inline (3 full-image
passes: luminance + blur + Sobel). For models with 15-20 textures this added
30-40ms to the 70ms model upload. Now deferred to a per-frame budget (2/frame
in-game, 10/frame during load screen). Models render without POM until their
normal maps are ready.

include/core/application.hpp

@@ -3,13 +3,19 @@
 #include "core/window.hpp"
 #include "core/input.hpp"
 #include "game/character.hpp"
+#include "pipeline/blp_loader.hpp"
 #include <memory>
 #include <string>
 #include <vector>
+#include <deque>
 #include <unordered_map>
 #include <unordered_set>
 #include <array>
 #include <optional>
+#include <future>
+#include <mutex>
+#include <thread>
+#include <atomic>
 
 namespace wowee {
 
@@ -18,7 +24,7 @@ namespace rendering { class Renderer; }
 namespace ui { class UIManager; }
 namespace auth { class AuthHandler; }
 namespace game { class GameHandler; class World; class ExpansionRegistry; }
-namespace pipeline { class AssetManager; class DBCLayout; }
+namespace pipeline { class AssetManager; class DBCLayout; struct M2Model; struct WMOModel; }
 namespace audio { enum class VoiceType; }
 
 namespace core {
@@ -90,6 +96,7 @@ private:
     static const char* mapIdToName(uint32_t mapId);
     void loadOnlineWorldTerrain(uint32_t mapId, float x, float y, float z);
     void buildFactionHostilityMap(uint8_t playerRace);
+    pipeline::M2Model loadCreatureM2Sync(const std::string& m2Path);
     void spawnOnlineCreature(uint64_t guid, uint32_t displayId, float x, float y, float z, float orientation);
     void despawnOnlineCreature(uint64_t guid);
     bool tryAttachCreatureVirtualWeapons(uint64_t guid, uint32_t instanceId);
@@ -181,8 +188,39 @@ private:
     std::unordered_map<uint64_t, glm::vec3> creatureRenderPosCache_; // guid -> last synced render position
     std::unordered_set<uint64_t> creatureWeaponsAttached_;       // guid set when NPC virtual weapons attached
     std::unordered_map<uint64_t, uint8_t> creatureWeaponAttachAttempts_; // guid -> attach attempts
+    std::unordered_map<uint32_t, bool> modelIdIsWolfLike_;     // modelId → cached wolf/worg check
+    static constexpr int MAX_WEAPON_ATTACHES_PER_TICK = 2;     // limit weapon attach work per 1s tick
+
+    // CharSections.dbc lookup cache to avoid O(N) DBC scan per NPC spawn.
+    // Key: (race<<24)|(sex<<16)|(section<<12)|(variation<<8)|color → texture path
+    std::unordered_map<uint64_t, std::string> charSectionsCache_;
+    bool charSectionsCacheBuilt_ = false;
+    void buildCharSectionsCache();
+    std::string lookupCharSection(uint8_t race, uint8_t sex, uint8_t section,
+                                  uint8_t variation, uint8_t color, int texIndex = 0) const;
+
+    // Async creature model loading: file I/O + M2 parsing on background thread,
+    // GPU upload + instance creation on main thread.
+    struct PreparedCreatureModel {
+        uint64_t guid;
+        uint32_t displayId;
+        uint32_t modelId;
+        float x, y, z, orientation;
+        std::shared_ptr<pipeline::M2Model> model; // parsed on background thread
+        std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> predecodedTextures; // decoded on bg thread
+        bool valid = false;
+        bool permanent_failure = false;
+    };
+    struct AsyncCreatureLoad {
+        std::future<PreparedCreatureModel> future;
+    };
+    std::vector<AsyncCreatureLoad> asyncCreatureLoads_;
+    void processAsyncCreatureResults();
+    static constexpr int MAX_ASYNC_CREATURE_LOADS = 4; // concurrent background loads
     std::unordered_set<uint64_t> deadCreatureGuids_;            // GUIDs that should spawn in corpse/death pose
     std::unordered_map<uint32_t, uint32_t> displayIdModelCache_; // displayId → modelId (model caching)
+    std::unordered_set<uint32_t> displayIdTexturesApplied_;    // displayIds with per-model textures applied
+    std::unordered_map<uint32_t, std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>> displayIdPredecodedTextures_; // displayId → pre-decoded skin textures
     mutable std::unordered_set<uint32_t> warnedMissingDisplayDataIds_; // displayIds already warned
     mutable std::unordered_set<uint32_t> warnedMissingModelPathIds_;   // modelIds/displayIds already warned
     uint32_t nextCreatureModelId_ = 5000;  // Model IDs for online creatures
@@ -250,7 +288,7 @@ private:
         uint32_t displayId;
         float x, y, z, orientation;
     };
-    std::vector<PendingCreatureSpawn> pendingCreatureSpawns_;
+    std::deque<PendingCreatureSpawn> pendingCreatureSpawns_;
     static constexpr int MAX_SPAWNS_PER_FRAME = 3;
     static constexpr int MAX_NEW_CREATURE_MODELS_PER_FRAME = 1;
     static constexpr uint16_t MAX_CREATURE_SPAWN_RETRIES = 300;
@@ -275,6 +313,49 @@ private:
     // Deferred equipment compositing queue — processes max 1 per frame to avoid stutter
     std::vector<std::pair<uint64_t, std::pair<std::array<uint32_t, 19>, std::array<uint8_t, 19>>>> deferredEquipmentQueue_;
     void processDeferredEquipmentQueue();
+    // Async equipment texture pre-decode: BLP decode on background thread, composite on main thread
+    struct PreparedEquipmentUpdate {
+        uint64_t guid;
+        std::array<uint32_t, 19> displayInfoIds;
+        std::array<uint8_t, 19> inventoryTypes;
+        std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> predecodedTextures;
+    };
+    struct AsyncEquipmentLoad {
+        std::future<PreparedEquipmentUpdate> future;
+    };
+    std::vector<AsyncEquipmentLoad> asyncEquipmentLoads_;
+    void processAsyncEquipmentResults();
+    std::vector<std::string> resolveEquipmentTexturePaths(uint64_t guid,
+        const std::array<uint32_t, 19>& displayInfoIds,
+        const std::array<uint8_t, 19>& inventoryTypes) const;
+    // Deferred NPC texture setup — async DBC lookups + BLP pre-decode to avoid main-thread stalls
+    struct DeferredNpcComposite {
+        uint32_t modelId;
+        uint32_t displayId;
+        // Skin compositing (type-1 slots)
+        std::string basePath;                     // CharSections skin base texture
+        std::vector<std::string> overlayPaths;    // face + underwear overlays
+        std::vector<std::pair<int, std::string>> regionLayers;  // equipment region overlays
+        std::vector<uint32_t> skinTextureSlots;   // model texture slots needing skin composite
+        bool hasComposite = false;                // needs compositing (overlays or equipment regions)
+        bool hasSimpleSkin = false;               // just base skin, no compositing needed
+        // Baked skin (type-1 slots)
+        std::string bakedSkinPath;                // baked texture path (if available)
+        bool hasBakedSkin = false;                // baked skin resolved successfully
+        // Hair (type-6 slots)
+        std::vector<uint32_t> hairTextureSlots;   // model texture slots needing hair texture
+        std::string hairTexturePath;              // resolved hair texture path
+        bool useBakedForHair = false;             // bald NPC: use baked skin for type-6
+    };
+    struct PreparedNpcComposite {
+        DeferredNpcComposite info;
+        std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> predecodedTextures;
+    };
+    struct AsyncNpcCompositeLoad {
+        std::future<PreparedNpcComposite> future;
+    };
+    std::vector<AsyncNpcCompositeLoad> asyncNpcCompositeLoads_;
+    void processAsyncNpcCompositeResults();
     // Cache base player model geometry by (raceId, genderId)
     std::unordered_map<uint32_t, uint32_t> playerModelCache_; // key=(race<<8)|gender → modelId
     struct PlayerTextureSlots { int skin = -1; int hair = -1; int underwear = -1; };
@@ -302,6 +383,24 @@ private:
     };
     std::vector<PendingGameObjectSpawn> pendingGameObjectSpawns_;
     void processGameObjectSpawnQueue();
+
+    // Async WMO loading for game objects (file I/O + parse on background thread)
+    struct PreparedGameObjectWMO {
+        uint64_t guid;
+        uint32_t entry;
+        uint32_t displayId;
+        float x, y, z, orientation;
+        std::shared_ptr<pipeline::WMOModel> wmoModel;
+        std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> predecodedTextures; // decoded on bg thread
+        bool valid = false;
+        bool isWmo = false;
+        std::string modelPath;
+    };
+    struct AsyncGameObjectLoad {
+        std::future<PreparedGameObjectWMO> future;
+    };
+    std::vector<AsyncGameObjectLoad> asyncGameObjectLoads_;
+    void processAsyncGameObjectResults();
     struct PendingTransportDoodadBatch {
         uint64_t guid = 0;
         uint32_t modelId = 0;
@@ -321,6 +420,23 @@ private:
     // Quest marker billboard sprites (above NPCs)
     void loadQuestMarkerModels();  // Now loads BLP textures
     void updateQuestMarkers();     // Updates billboard positions
+
+    // Background world preloader — warms AssetManager file cache for the
+    // expected world before the user clicks Enter World.
+    struct WorldPreload {
+        uint32_t mapId = 0;
+        std::string mapName;
+        int centerTileX = 0;
+        int centerTileY = 0;
+        std::atomic<bool> cancel{false};
+        std::vector<std::thread> workers;
+    };
+    std::unique_ptr<WorldPreload> worldPreload_;
+    void startWorldPreload(uint32_t mapId, const std::string& mapName, float serverX, float serverY);
+    void cancelWorldPreload();
+    void saveLastWorldInfo(uint32_t mapId, const std::string& mapName, float serverX, float serverY);
+    struct LastWorldInfo { uint32_t mapId = 0; std::string mapName; float x = 0, y = 0; bool valid = false; };
+    LastWorldInfo loadLastWorldInfo() const;
 };
 
 } // namespace core

include/rendering/character_renderer.hpp

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include "pipeline/m2_loader.hpp"
+#include "pipeline/blp_loader.hpp"
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 #include <vk_mem_alloc.h>
 #include <glm/glm.hpp>
@@ -11,6 +12,7 @@
 #include <string>
 #include <utility>
 #include <future>
+#include <deque>
 
 namespace wowee {
 namespace pipeline { class AssetManager; }
@@ -114,7 +116,11 @@ public:
     void setShadowMap(VkTexture*, const glm::mat4&) {}
     void clearShadowMap() {}
 
+    // Pre-decoded BLP cache: set before calling loadModel() to skip main-thread BLP decode
+    void setPredecodedBLPCache(std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* cache) { predecodedBLPCache_ = cache; }
+
 private:
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* predecodedBLPCache_ = nullptr;
     // GPU representation of M2 model
     struct M2ModelGPU {
         VkBuffer vertexBuffer = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
@@ -180,6 +186,7 @@ private:
 
         // Bone update throttling (skip frames for distant characters)
         uint32_t boneUpdateCounter = 0;
+        const M2ModelGPU* cachedModel = nullptr;  // Avoid per-frame hash lookups
 
         // Per-instance bone SSBO (double-buffered per frame)
         VkBuffer boneBuffer[2] = {};
@@ -254,7 +261,14 @@ private:
     VkDescriptorPool materialDescPools_[2] = {VK_NULL_HANDLE, VK_NULL_HANDLE};
     VkDescriptorPool boneDescPool_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
     uint32_t lastMaterialPoolResetFrame_ = 0xFFFFFFFFu;
-    std::vector<std::pair<VkBuffer, VmaAllocation>> transientMaterialUbos_[2];
+
+    // Material UBO ring buffer — pre-allocated per frame slot, sub-allocated each draw
+    VkBuffer materialRingBuffer_[2] = {VK_NULL_HANDLE, VK_NULL_HANDLE};
+    VmaAllocation materialRingAlloc_[2] = {VK_NULL_HANDLE, VK_NULL_HANDLE};
+    void* materialRingMapped_[2] = {nullptr, nullptr};
+    uint32_t materialRingOffset_[2] = {0, 0};
+    uint32_t materialUboAlignment_ = 256;  // minUniformBufferOffsetAlignment
+    static constexpr uint32_t MATERIAL_RING_CAPACITY = 4096;
 
     // Texture cache
     struct TextureCacheEntry {
@@ -265,6 +279,7 @@ private:
         uint64_t lastUse = 0;
         bool hasAlpha = false;
         bool colorKeyBlack = false;
+        bool normalMapPending = false;  // deferred normal map generation
     };
     std::unordered_map<std::string, TextureCacheEntry> textureCache;
     std::unordered_map<VkTexture*, bool> textureHasAlphaByPtr_;
@@ -289,6 +304,17 @@ private:
     std::unique_ptr<VkTexture> generateNormalHeightMap(
         const uint8_t* pixels, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, float& outVariance);
 
+    // Deferred normal map generation — avoids stalling loadModel
+    struct PendingNormalMap {
+        std::string cacheKey;
+        std::vector<uint8_t> pixels;  // RGBA pixel data
+        uint32_t width, height;
+    };
+    std::deque<PendingNormalMap> pendingNormalMaps_;
+public:
+    void processPendingNormalMaps(int budget = 2);
+private:
+
     // Normal mapping / POM settings
     bool normalMappingEnabled_ = true;
     float normalMapStrength_ = 0.8f;

include/rendering/m2_renderer.hpp

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include "pipeline/m2_loader.hpp"
+#include "pipeline/blp_loader.hpp"
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 #include <vk_mem_alloc.h>
 #include <glm/glm.hpp>
@@ -188,6 +189,7 @@ struct M2Instance {
     bool skipCollision = false;    // WMO interior doodads — skip player wall collision
     float cachedBoundRadius = 0.0f;
     float portalSpinAngle = 0.0f;  // Accumulated spin angle for portal rotation
+    const M2ModelGPU* cachedModel = nullptr;  // Avoid per-frame hash lookups
 
     // Frame-skip optimization (update distant animations less frequently)
     uint8_t frameSkipCounter = 0;
@@ -328,6 +330,10 @@ public:
 
     std::vector<glm::vec3> getWaterVegetationPositions(const glm::vec3& camPos, float maxDist) const;
 
+    // Pre-decoded BLP cache: set by terrain manager before calling loadModel()
+    // so loadTexture() can skip the expensive assetManager->loadTexture() call.
+    void setPredecodedBLPCache(std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* cache) { predecodedBLPCache_ = cache; }
+
 private:
     bool initialized_ = false;
     bool insideInterior = false;
@@ -389,12 +395,33 @@ private:
     std::unordered_map<uint32_t, M2ModelGPU> models;
     std::vector<M2Instance> instances;
 
+    // O(1) dedup: key = (modelId, quantized x, quantized y, quantized z) → instanceId
+    struct DedupKey {
+        uint32_t modelId;
+        int32_t qx, qy, qz; // position quantized to 0.1 units
+        bool operator==(const DedupKey& o) const {
+            return modelId == o.modelId && qx == o.qx && qy == o.qy && qz == o.qz;
+        }
+    };
+    struct DedupHash {
+        size_t operator()(const DedupKey& k) const {
+            size_t h = std::hash<uint32_t>()(k.modelId);
+            h ^= std::hash<int32_t>()(k.qx) * 2654435761u;
+            h ^= std::hash<int32_t>()(k.qy) * 40503u;
+            h ^= std::hash<int32_t>()(k.qz) * 12289u;
+            return h;
+        }
+    };
+    std::unordered_map<DedupKey, uint32_t, DedupHash> instanceDedupMap_;
+
     uint32_t nextInstanceId = 1;
     uint32_t lastDrawCallCount = 0;
     size_t modelCacheLimit_ = 6000;
     uint32_t modelLimitRejectWarnings_ = 0;
 
     VkTexture* loadTexture(const std::string& path, uint32_t texFlags = 0);
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* predecodedBLPCache_ = nullptr;
+
     struct TextureCacheEntry {
         std::unique_ptr<VkTexture> texture;
         size_t approxBytes = 0;

include/rendering/terrain_manager.hpp

@@ -121,6 +121,12 @@ struct PendingTile {
     // Pre-loaded terrain texture BLP data (loaded on background thread to avoid
     // blocking file I/O on the main thread during finalizeTile)
     std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> preloadedTextures;
+
+    // Pre-decoded M2 model textures (decoded on background thread)
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> preloadedM2Textures;
+
+    // Pre-decoded WMO textures (decoded on background thread)
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage> preloadedWMOTextures;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -150,6 +156,11 @@ struct FinalizingTile {
     size_t wmoModelIndex = 0;      // Next WMO model to upload
     size_t wmoDoodadIndex = 0;     // Next WMO doodad to upload
 
+    // Incremental terrain upload state (splits TERRAIN phase across frames)
+    bool terrainPreloaded = false;  // True after preloaded textures uploaded
+    int terrainChunkNext = 0;       // Next chunk index to upload (0-255, row-major)
+    bool terrainMeshDone = false;   // True when all chunks uploaded
+
     // Accumulated results (built up across phases)
     std::vector<uint32_t> m2InstanceIds;
     std::vector<uint32_t> wmoInstanceIds;
@@ -376,6 +387,11 @@ private:
     std::unordered_set<std::string> missingAdtWarnings_;
     std::mutex missingAdtWarningsMutex_;
 
+    // Thread-safe set of M2 model IDs already uploaded to GPU
+    // (checked by workers to skip redundant file I/O + parsing)
+    std::unordered_set<uint32_t> uploadedM2Ids_;
+    std::mutex uploadedM2IdsMutex_;
+
     // Dedup set for doodad placements across tile boundaries
     std::unordered_set<uint32_t> placedDoodadIds;
 

include/rendering/terrain_renderer.hpp

@@ -86,6 +86,13 @@ public:
                      const std::vector<std::string>& texturePaths,
                      int tileX = -1, int tileY = -1);
 
+    /// Upload a batch of terrain chunks incrementally. Returns true when all chunks done.
+    /// chunkIndex is updated to the next chunk to process (0-255 row-major).
+    bool loadTerrainIncremental(const pipeline::TerrainMesh& mesh,
+                                const std::vector<std::string>& texturePaths,
+                                int tileX, int tileY,
+                                int& chunkIndex, int maxChunksPerCall = 16);
+
     void removeTile(int tileX, int tileY);
 
     void uploadPreloadedTextures(const std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>& textures);
@@ -120,6 +127,7 @@ public:
     int getRenderedChunkCount() const { return renderedChunks; }
     int getCulledChunkCount() const { return culledChunks; }
     int getTriangleCount() const;
+    VkContext* getVkContext() const { return vkCtx; }
 
 private:
     TerrainChunkGPU uploadChunk(const pipeline::ChunkMesh& chunk);

include/rendering/vk_context.hpp

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include "rendering/vk_utils.hpp"
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 #include <vk_mem_alloc.h>
 #include <VkBootstrap.h>
@@ -46,6 +47,16 @@ public:
     // Immediate submit for one-off GPU work (descriptor pool creation, etc.)
     void immediateSubmit(std::function<void(VkCommandBuffer cmd)>&& function);
 
+    // Batch upload mode: records multiple upload commands into a single
+    // command buffer, then submits with ONE fence wait instead of one per upload.
+    void beginUploadBatch();
+    void endUploadBatch();       // Async: submits but does NOT wait for fence
+    void endUploadBatchSync();   // Sync: submits and waits (for load screens)
+    bool isInUploadBatch() const { return inUploadBatch_; }
+    void deferStagingCleanup(AllocatedBuffer staging);
+    void pollUploadBatches();    // Check completed async uploads, free staging buffers
+    void waitAllUploads();       // Block until all in-flight uploads complete
+
     // Accessors
     VkInstance getInstance() const { return instance; }
     VkPhysicalDevice getPhysicalDevice() const { return physicalDevice; }
@@ -143,6 +154,20 @@ private:
     VkCommandPool immCommandPool = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
     VkFence immFence = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
 
+    // Batch upload state (nesting-safe via depth counter)
+    int uploadBatchDepth_ = 0;
+    bool inUploadBatch_ = false;
+    VkCommandBuffer batchCmd_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+    std::vector<AllocatedBuffer> batchStagingBuffers_;
+
+    // Async upload: in-flight batches awaiting GPU completion
+    struct InFlightBatch {
+        VkFence fence = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+        VkCommandBuffer cmd = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+        std::vector<AllocatedBuffer> stagingBuffers;
+    };
+    std::vector<InFlightBatch> inFlightBatches_;
+
     // Depth buffer (shared across all framebuffers)
     VkImage depthImage = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
     VkImageView depthImageView = VK_NULL_HANDLE;

include/rendering/wmo_renderer.hpp

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include "pipeline/blp_loader.hpp"
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 #include <vk_mem_alloc.h>
 #include <glm/glm.hpp>
@@ -325,6 +326,12 @@ public:
     // Pre-compute floor cache for all loaded WMO instances
     void precomputeFloorCache();
 
+    // Pre-decoded BLP cache: set before calling loadModel() to skip main-thread BLP decode
+    void setPredecodedBLPCache(std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* cache) { predecodedBLPCache_ = cache; }
+
+    // Defer normal/height map generation during streaming to avoid CPU stalls
+    void setDeferNormalMaps(bool defer) { deferNormalMaps_ = defer; }
+
 private:
     // WMO material UBO — matches WMOMaterial in wmo.frag.glsl
     struct WMOMaterialUBO {
@@ -558,6 +565,7 @@ private:
      * Load a texture from path
      */
     VkTexture* loadTexture(const std::string& path);
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, pipeline::BLPImage>* predecodedBLPCache_ = nullptr;
 
     /**
      * Generate normal+height map from diffuse RGBA8 pixels
@@ -670,6 +678,7 @@ private:
 
     // Normal mapping / POM settings
     bool normalMappingEnabled_ = true;   // on by default
+    bool deferNormalMaps_ = false;       // skip normal map gen during streaming
     float normalMapStrength_ = 0.8f;     // 0.0 = flat, 1.0 = full, 2.0 = exaggerated
     bool pomEnabled_ = true;             // on by default
     int pomQuality_ = 1;                 // 0=Low(16), 1=Medium(32), 2=High(64)

src/game/game_handler.cpp

@@ -541,7 +541,13 @@ void GameHandler::update(float deltaTime) {
 
     // Update socket (processes incoming data and triggers callbacks)
     if (socket) {
+        auto socketStart = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
         socket->update();
+        float socketMs = std::chrono::duration<float, std::milli>(
+            std::chrono::steady_clock::now() - socketStart).count();
+        if (socketMs > 3.0f) {
+            LOG_WARNING("SLOW socket->update: ", socketMs, "ms");
+        }
     }
 
     // Detect server-side disconnect (socket closed during update)

src/rendering/character_renderer.cpp

@@ -197,6 +197,29 @@ bool CharacterRenderer::initialize(VkContext* ctx, VkDescriptorSetLayout perFram
         vkCreateDescriptorPool(device, &ci, nullptr, &boneDescPool_);
     }
 
+    // --- Material UBO ring buffers (one per frame slot) ---
+    {
+        VkPhysicalDeviceProperties props;
+        vkGetPhysicalDeviceProperties(ctx->getPhysicalDevice(), &props);
+        materialUboAlignment_ = static_cast<uint32_t>(props.limits.minUniformBufferOffsetAlignment);
+        if (materialUboAlignment_ < 1) materialUboAlignment_ = 1;
+        // Round up UBO size to alignment
+        uint32_t alignedUboSize = (sizeof(CharMaterialUBO) + materialUboAlignment_ - 1) & ~(materialUboAlignment_ - 1);
+        uint32_t ringSize = alignedUboSize * MATERIAL_RING_CAPACITY;
+        for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
+            VkBufferCreateInfo bci{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO};
+            bci.size = ringSize;
+            bci.usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_UNIFORM_BUFFER_BIT;
+            VmaAllocationCreateInfo aci{};
+            aci.usage = VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU;
+            aci.flags = VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_HOST_ACCESS_SEQUENTIAL_WRITE_BIT | VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT;
+            VmaAllocationInfo allocInfo{};
+            vmaCreateBuffer(ctx->getAllocator(), &bci, &aci,
+                            &materialRingBuffer_[i], &materialRingAlloc_[i], &allocInfo);
+            materialRingMapped_[i] = allocInfo.pMappedData;
+        }
+    }
+
     // --- Pipeline layout ---
     // set 0 = perFrame, set 1 = material, set 2 = bones
     // Push constant: mat4 model = 64 bytes
@@ -352,14 +375,15 @@ void CharacterRenderer::shutdown() {
 
     if (pipelineLayout_) { vkDestroyPipelineLayout(device, pipelineLayout_, nullptr); pipelineLayout_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE; }
 
-    // Release any deferred transient material UBOs.
+    // Destroy material ring buffers
     for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
-        for (const auto& b : transientMaterialUbos_[i]) {
+        if (materialRingBuffer_[i]) {
-            if (b.first) {
+            vmaDestroyBuffer(alloc, materialRingBuffer_[i], materialRingAlloc_[i]);
-                vmaDestroyBuffer(alloc, b.first, b.second);
+            materialRingBuffer_[i] = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
-            }
+            materialRingAlloc_[i] = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+            materialRingMapped_[i] = nullptr;
         }
-        transientMaterialUbos_[i].clear();
+        materialRingOffset_[i] = 0;
     }
 
     // Destroy descriptor pools and layouts
@@ -391,7 +415,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::clear() {
 
     vkDeviceWaitIdle(vkCtx_->getDevice());
     VkDevice device = vkCtx_->getDevice();
-    VmaAllocator alloc = vkCtx_->getAllocator();
 
     // Destroy GPU resources for all models
     for (auto& pair : models) {
@@ -441,14 +464,9 @@ void CharacterRenderer::clear() {
     models.clear();
     instances.clear();
 
-    // Release deferred transient material UBOs
+    // Reset material ring buffer offsets (buffers persist, just reset write position)
     for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
-        for (const auto& b : transientMaterialUbos_[i]) {
+        materialRingOffset_[i] = 0;
-            if (b.first) {
-                vmaDestroyBuffer(alloc, b.first, b.second);
-            }
-        }
-        transientMaterialUbos_[i].clear();
     }
 
     // Reset descriptor pools (don't destroy — reuse for new allocations)
@@ -607,7 +625,18 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path) {
         return whiteTexture_.get();
     }
 
-    auto blpImage = assetManager->loadTexture(key);
+    // Check pre-decoded BLP cache first (populated by background threads)
+    pipeline::BLPImage blpImage;
+    if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+        auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+        if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+            blpImage = std::move(pit->second);
+            predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+        }
+    }
+    if (!blpImage.isValid()) {
+        blpImage = assetManager->loadTexture(key);
+    }
     if (!blpImage.isValid()) {
         // Return white fallback but don't cache the failure — allow retry
         // on next character load in case the asset becomes available.
@@ -658,13 +687,16 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path) {
     e.hasAlpha = hasAlpha;
     e.colorKeyBlack = colorKeyBlackHint;
 
-    // Generate normal/height map from diffuse texture
+    // Defer normal/height map generation to avoid stalling loadModel.
-    float nhVariance = 0.0f;
+    // Normal maps are generated in processPendingNormalMaps() at a per-frame budget.
-    auto nhMap = generateNormalHeightMap(blpImage.data.data(), blpImage.width, blpImage.height, nhVariance);
+    if (blpImage.width >= 32 && blpImage.height >= 32) {
-    if (nhMap) {
+        PendingNormalMap pending;
-        e.heightMapVariance = nhVariance;
+        pending.cacheKey = key;
-        e.approxBytes += approxTextureBytesWithMips(blpImage.width, blpImage.height);
+        pending.pixels.assign(blpImage.data.begin(), blpImage.data.end());
-        e.normalHeightMap = std::move(nhMap);
+        pending.width = blpImage.width;
+        pending.height = blpImage.height;
+        pendingNormalMaps_.push_back(std::move(pending));
+        e.normalMapPending = true;
     }
 
     textureCacheBytes_ += e.approxBytes;
@@ -676,6 +708,34 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path) {
     return texPtr;
 }
 
+void CharacterRenderer::processPendingNormalMaps(int budget) {
+    if (pendingNormalMaps_.empty() || !vkCtx_) return;
+
+    int processed = 0;
+    while (!pendingNormalMaps_.empty() && processed < budget) {
+        auto pending = std::move(pendingNormalMaps_.front());
+        pendingNormalMaps_.pop_front();
+
+        auto it = textureCache.find(pending.cacheKey);
+        if (it == textureCache.end()) continue;  // texture was evicted
+
+        float nhVariance = 0.0f;
+        vkCtx_->beginUploadBatch();
+        auto nhMap = generateNormalHeightMap(pending.pixels.data(),
+            pending.width, pending.height, nhVariance);
+        vkCtx_->endUploadBatch();
+
+        if (nhMap) {
+            it->second.heightMapVariance = nhVariance;
+            it->second.approxBytes += approxTextureBytesWithMips(pending.width, pending.height);
+            textureCacheBytes_ += approxTextureBytesWithMips(pending.width, pending.height);
+            it->second.normalHeightMap = std::move(nhMap);
+        }
+        it->second.normalMapPending = false;
+        processed++;
+    }
+}
+
 // Alpha-blend overlay onto composite at (dstX, dstY)
 static void blitOverlay(std::vector<uint8_t>& composite, int compW, int compH,
                          const pipeline::BLPImage& overlay, int dstX, int dstY) {
@@ -807,7 +867,19 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::compositeTextures(const std::vector<std::string>&
     }
 
     // Load base layer
-    auto base = assetManager->loadTexture(layerPaths[0]);
+    pipeline::BLPImage base;
+    if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+        std::string key = layerPaths[0];
+        std::replace(key.begin(), key.end(), '/', '\\');
+        std::transform(key.begin(), key.end(), key.begin(),
+                       [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+        auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+        if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+            base = std::move(pit->second);
+            predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+        }
+    }
+    if (!base.isValid()) base = assetManager->loadTexture(layerPaths[0]);
     if (!base.isValid()) {
         core::Logger::getInstance().warning("Composite: failed to load base layer: ", layerPaths[0]);
         return whiteTexture_.get();
@@ -848,7 +920,19 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::compositeTextures(const std::vector<std::string>&
     for (size_t layer = 1; layer < layerPaths.size(); layer++) {
         if (layerPaths[layer].empty()) continue;
 
-        auto overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(layerPaths[layer]);
+        pipeline::BLPImage overlay;
+        if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+            std::string key = layerPaths[layer];
+            std::replace(key.begin(), key.end(), '/', '\\');
+            std::transform(key.begin(), key.end(), key.begin(),
+                           [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+            auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+            if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+                overlay = std::move(pit->second);
+                predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+            }
+        }
+        if (!overlay.isValid()) overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(layerPaths[layer]);
         if (!overlay.isValid()) {
             core::Logger::getInstance().warning("Composite: FAILED to load overlay: ", layerPaths[layer]);
             continue;
@@ -1025,7 +1109,19 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::compositeWithRegions(const std::string& basePath,
         return whiteTexture_.get();
     }
 
-    auto base = assetManager->loadTexture(basePath);
+    pipeline::BLPImage base;
+    if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+        std::string key = basePath;
+        std::replace(key.begin(), key.end(), '/', '\\');
+        std::transform(key.begin(), key.end(), key.begin(),
+                       [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+        auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+        if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+            base = std::move(pit->second);
+            predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+        }
+    }
+    if (!base.isValid()) base = assetManager->loadTexture(basePath);
     if (!base.isValid()) {
         return whiteTexture_.get();
     }
@@ -1064,7 +1160,19 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::compositeWithRegions(const std::string& basePath,
     bool upscaled = (base.width == 256 && base.height == 256 && width == 512);
     for (const auto& ul : baseLayers) {
         if (ul.empty()) continue;
-        auto overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(ul);
+        pipeline::BLPImage overlay;
+        if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+            std::string key = ul;
+            std::replace(key.begin(), key.end(), '/', '\\');
+            std::transform(key.begin(), key.end(), key.begin(),
+                           [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+            auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+            if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+                overlay = std::move(pit->second);
+                predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+            }
+        }
+        if (!overlay.isValid()) overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(ul);
         if (!overlay.isValid()) continue;
 
         if (overlay.width == width && overlay.height == height) {
@@ -1142,7 +1250,19 @@ VkTexture* CharacterRenderer::compositeWithRegions(const std::string& basePath,
         int regionIdx = rl.first;
         if (regionIdx < 0 || regionIdx >= 8) continue;
 
-        auto overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(rl.second);
+        pipeline::BLPImage overlay;
+        if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+            std::string key = rl.second;
+            std::replace(key.begin(), key.end(), '/', '\\');
+            std::transform(key.begin(), key.end(), key.begin(),
+                           [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+            auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+            if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+                overlay = std::move(pit->second);
+                predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+            }
+        }
+        if (!overlay.isValid()) overlay = assetManager->loadTexture(rl.second);
         if (!overlay.isValid()) {
             core::Logger::getInstance().warning("compositeWithRegions: failed to load ", rl.second);
             continue;
@@ -1247,6 +1367,10 @@ bool CharacterRenderer::loadModel(const pipeline::M2Model& model, uint32_t id) {
     M2ModelGPU gpuModel;
     gpuModel.data = model;
 
+    // Batch all GPU uploads (VB, IB, textures) into a single command buffer
+    // submission with one fence wait, instead of one fence wait per upload.
+    vkCtx_->beginUploadBatch();
+
     // Setup GPU buffers
     setupModelBuffers(gpuModel);
 
@@ -1259,6 +1383,8 @@ bool CharacterRenderer::loadModel(const pipeline::M2Model& model, uint32_t id) {
         gpuModel.textureIds.push_back(texPtr);
     }
 
+    vkCtx_->endUploadBatch();
+
     models[id] = std::move(gpuModel);
 
     core::Logger::getInstance().debug("Loaded M2 model ", id, " (", model.vertices.size(),
@@ -1388,8 +1514,9 @@ uint32_t CharacterRenderer::createInstance(uint32_t modelId, const glm::vec3& po
     instance.scale = scale;
 
     // Initialize bone matrices to identity
-    auto& model = models[modelId].data;
+    auto& gpuRef = models[modelId];
-    instance.boneMatrices.resize(std::max(static_cast<size_t>(1), model.bones.size()), glm::mat4(1.0f));
+    instance.boneMatrices.resize(std::max(static_cast<size_t>(1), gpuRef.data.bones.size()), glm::mat4(1.0f));
+    instance.cachedModel = &gpuRef;
 
     uint32_t id = instance.id;
     instances[id] = std::move(instance);
@@ -1448,8 +1575,14 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
     const float animUpdateRadius = static_cast<float>(envSizeOrDefault("WOWEE_CHAR_ANIM_RADIUS", 120));
     const float animUpdateRadiusSq = animUpdateRadius * animUpdateRadius;
 
-    // Update fade-in opacity
+    // Single pass: fade-in, movement, and animation bone collection
-    for (auto& [id, inst] : instances) {
+    std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<CharacterInstance>> toUpdate;
+    toUpdate.reserve(instances.size());
+
+    for (auto& pair : instances) {
+        auto& inst = pair.second;
+
+        // Update fade-in opacity
         if (inst.fadeInDuration > 0.0f && inst.opacity < 1.0f) {
             inst.fadeInTime += deltaTime;
             inst.opacity = std::min(1.0f, inst.fadeInTime / inst.fadeInDuration);
@@ -1457,10 +1590,8 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
                 inst.fadeInDuration = 0.0f;
             }
         }
-    }
 
-    // Interpolate creature movement
+        // Interpolate creature movement
-    for (auto& [id, inst] : instances) {
         if (inst.isMoving) {
             inst.moveElapsed += deltaTime;
             float t = inst.moveElapsed / inst.moveDuration;
@@ -1469,36 +1600,26 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
                 inst.isMoving = false;
                 // Return to idle when movement completes
                 if (inst.currentAnimationId == 4 || inst.currentAnimationId == 5) {
-                    playAnimation(id, 0, true);
+                    playAnimation(pair.first, 0, true);
                 }
             } else {
                 inst.position = glm::mix(inst.moveStart, inst.moveEnd, t);
             }
         }
-    }
 
-    // Only update animations for nearby characters (performance optimization)
+        // Skip weapon instances for animation — their transforms are set by parent bones
-    // Collect instances that need bone recomputation, with distance-based throttling
-    std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<CharacterInstance>> toUpdate;
-    toUpdate.reserve(instances.size());
-
-    for (auto& pair : instances) {
-        auto& inst = pair.second;
-
-        // Skip weapon instances — their transforms are set by parent bones
         if (inst.hasOverrideModelMatrix) continue;
 
         float distSq = glm::distance2(inst.position, cameraPos);
         if (distSq >= animUpdateRadiusSq) continue;
 
         // Always advance animation time (cheap)
-        auto modelIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+        if (inst.cachedModel && !inst.cachedModel->data.sequences.empty()) {
-        if (modelIt != models.end() && !modelIt->second.data.sequences.empty()) {
             if (inst.currentSequenceIndex < 0) {
                 inst.currentSequenceIndex = 0;
-                inst.currentAnimationId = modelIt->second.data.sequences[0].id;
+                inst.currentAnimationId = inst.cachedModel->data.sequences[0].id;
             }
-            const auto& seq = modelIt->second.data.sequences[inst.currentSequenceIndex];
+            const auto& seq = inst.cachedModel->data.sequences[inst.currentSequenceIndex];
             inst.animationTime += deltaTime * 1000.0f;
             if (seq.duration > 0 && inst.animationTime >= static_cast<float>(seq.duration)) {
                 if (inst.animationLoop) {
@@ -1509,10 +1630,11 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
             }
         }
 
-        // Distance-tiered bone throttling: near=every frame, mid=every 3rd, far=every 6th
+        // Distance-tiered bone throttling: near=every frame, mid=every 4th, far=every 8th
         uint32_t boneInterval = 1;
-        if (distSq > 60.0f * 60.0f) boneInterval = 6;
+        if (distSq > 40.0f * 40.0f) boneInterval = 8;
-        else if (distSq > 30.0f * 30.0f) boneInterval = 3;
+        else if (distSq > 20.0f * 20.0f) boneInterval = 4;
+        else if (distSq > 10.0f * 10.0f) boneInterval = 2;
 
         inst.boneUpdateCounter++;
         bool needsBones = (inst.boneUpdateCounter >= boneInterval) || inst.boneMatrices.empty();
@@ -1527,7 +1649,7 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
     // Thread bone matrix computation in chunks
     if (updatedCount >= 8 && numAnimThreads_ > 1) {
         static const size_t minAnimWorkPerThread = std::max<size_t>(
-            16, envSizeOrDefault("WOWEE_CHAR_ANIM_WORK_PER_THREAD", 64));
+            8, envSizeOrDefault("WOWEE_CHAR_ANIM_WORK_PER_THREAD", 16));
         const size_t maxUsefulThreads = std::max<size_t>(
             1, (updatedCount + minAnimWorkPerThread - 1) / minAnimWorkPerThread);
         const size_t numThreads = std::min(static_cast<size_t>(numAnimThreads_), maxUsefulThreads);
@@ -1596,11 +1718,8 @@ void CharacterRenderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos) {
 }
 
 void CharacterRenderer::updateAnimation(CharacterInstance& instance, float deltaTime) {
-    auto modelIt = models.find(instance.modelId);
+    if (!instance.cachedModel) return;
-    if (modelIt == models.end()) {
+    const auto& model = instance.cachedModel->data;
-        return;
-    }
-    const auto& model = modelIt->second.data;
 
     if (model.sequences.empty()) {
         return;
@@ -1713,7 +1832,8 @@ glm::quat CharacterRenderer::interpolateQuat(const pipeline::M2AnimationTrack& t
 // --- Bone transform calculation ---
 
 void CharacterRenderer::calculateBoneMatrices(CharacterInstance& instance) {
-    auto& model = models[instance.modelId].data;
+    if (!instance.cachedModel) return;
+    auto& model = instance.cachedModel->data;
 
     if (model.bones.empty()) {
         return;
@@ -1722,8 +1842,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::calculateBoneMatrices(CharacterInstance& instance) {
     size_t numBones = model.bones.size();
     instance.boneMatrices.resize(numBones);
 
-    static bool dumpedOnce = false;
-
     for (size_t i = 0; i < numBones; i++) {
         const auto& bone = model.bones[i];
 
@@ -1731,19 +1849,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::calculateBoneMatrices(CharacterInstance& instance) {
         // At rest this is identity, so no separate bind pose is needed
         glm::mat4 localTransform = getBoneTransform(bone, instance.animationTime, instance.currentSequenceIndex);
 
-        // Debug: dump first frame bone data
-        if (!dumpedOnce && i < 5) {
-            glm::vec3 t = interpolateVec3(bone.translation, instance.currentSequenceIndex, instance.animationTime, glm::vec3(0.0f));
-            glm::quat r = interpolateQuat(bone.rotation, instance.currentSequenceIndex, instance.animationTime);
-            glm::vec3 s = interpolateVec3(bone.scale, instance.currentSequenceIndex, instance.animationTime, glm::vec3(1.0f));
-            core::Logger::getInstance().info("Bone ", i, " parent=", bone.parentBone,
-                " pivot=(", bone.pivot.x, ",", bone.pivot.y, ",", bone.pivot.z, ")",
-                " t=(", t.x, ",", t.y, ",", t.z, ")",
-                " r=(", r.w, ",", r.x, ",", r.y, ",", r.z, ")",
-                " s=(", s.x, ",", s.y, ",", s.z, ")",
-                " seqIdx=", instance.currentSequenceIndex);
-        }
-
         // Compose with parent
         if (bone.parentBone >= 0 && static_cast<size_t>(bone.parentBone) < numBones) {
             instance.boneMatrices[i] = instance.boneMatrices[bone.parentBone] * localTransform;
@@ -1751,12 +1856,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::calculateBoneMatrices(CharacterInstance& instance) {
             instance.boneMatrices[i] = localTransform;
         }
     }
-    if (!dumpedOnce) {
-        dumpedOnce = true;
-        // Dump final matrix for bone 0
-        auto& m = instance.boneMatrices[0];
-        core::Logger::getInstance().info("Bone 0 final matrix row0=(", m[0][0], ",", m[1][0], ",", m[2][0], ",", m[3][0], ")");
-    }
 }
 
 glm::mat4 CharacterRenderer::getBoneTransform(const pipeline::M2Bone& bone, float time, int sequenceIndex) {
@@ -1791,22 +1890,19 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
     uint32_t frameIndex = vkCtx_->getCurrentFrame();
     uint32_t frameSlot = frameIndex % 2u;
 
-    // Reset transient material allocations once per frame slot.
+    // Reset material ring buffer and descriptor pool once per frame slot.
-    // beginFrame() waits on this slot's fence before recording.
     if (lastMaterialPoolResetFrame_ != frameIndex) {
-        VmaAllocator alloc = vkCtx_->getAllocator();
+        materialRingOffset_[frameSlot] = 0;
-        for (const auto& b : transientMaterialUbos_[frameSlot]) {
-            if (b.first) {
-                vmaDestroyBuffer(alloc, b.first, b.second);
-            }
-        }
-        transientMaterialUbos_[frameSlot].clear();
         if (materialDescPools_[frameSlot]) {
             vkResetDescriptorPool(vkCtx_->getDevice(), materialDescPools_[frameSlot], 0);
         }
         lastMaterialPoolResetFrame_ = frameIndex;
     }
 
+    // Pre-compute aligned UBO stride for ring buffer sub-allocation
+    const uint32_t uboStride = (sizeof(CharMaterialUBO) + materialUboAlignment_ - 1) & ~(materialUboAlignment_ - 1);
+    const uint32_t ringCapacityBytes = uboStride * MATERIAL_RING_CAPACITY;
+
     // Bind per-frame descriptor set (set 0) -- shared across all draws
     vkCmdBindDescriptorSets(cmd, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_GRAPHICS,
                             pipelineLayout_, 0, 1, &perFrameSet, 0, nullptr);
@@ -1838,9 +1934,8 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
             }
         }
 
-        auto modelIt = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (modelIt == models.end()) continue;
+        const auto& gpuModel = *instance.cachedModel;
-        const auto& gpuModel = modelIt->second;
 
         // Skip models without GPU buffers
         if (!gpuModel.vertexBuffer) continue;
@@ -2176,27 +2271,18 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
                 matData.heightMapVariance = batchHeightVariance;
                 matData.normalMapStrength = normalMapStrength_;
 
-                // Create a small UBO for this batch's material
+                // Sub-allocate material UBO from ring buffer
-                VkBufferCreateInfo bci{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO};
+                uint32_t matOffset = materialRingOffset_[frameSlot];
-                bci.size = sizeof(CharMaterialUBO);
+                if (matOffset + uboStride > ringCapacityBytes) continue; // ring exhausted
-                bci.usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_UNIFORM_BUFFER_BIT;
+                memcpy(static_cast<char*>(materialRingMapped_[frameSlot]) + matOffset, &matData, sizeof(CharMaterialUBO));
-                VmaAllocationCreateInfo aci{};
+                materialRingOffset_[frameSlot] = matOffset + uboStride;
-                aci.usage = VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU;
-                aci.flags = VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_HOST_ACCESS_SEQUENTIAL_WRITE_BIT | VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT;
-                VmaAllocationInfo allocInfo{};
-                ::VkBuffer matUBO = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
-                VmaAllocation matUBOAlloc = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
-                vmaCreateBuffer(vkCtx_->getAllocator(), &bci, &aci, &matUBO, &matUBOAlloc, &allocInfo);
-                if (allocInfo.pMappedData) {
-                    memcpy(allocInfo.pMappedData, &matData, sizeof(CharMaterialUBO));
-                }
 
                 // Write descriptor set: binding 0 = texture, binding 1 = material UBO, binding 2 = normal/height map
                 VkTexture* bindTex = (texPtr && texPtr->isValid()) ? texPtr : whiteTexture_.get();
                 VkDescriptorImageInfo imgInfo = bindTex->descriptorInfo();
                 VkDescriptorBufferInfo bufInfo{};
-                bufInfo.buffer = matUBO;
+                bufInfo.buffer = materialRingBuffer_[frameSlot];
-                bufInfo.offset = 0;
+                bufInfo.offset = matOffset;
                 bufInfo.range = sizeof(CharMaterialUBO);
                 VkDescriptorImageInfo nhImgInfo = normalMap->descriptorInfo();
 
@@ -2229,8 +2315,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
                                         pipelineLayout_, 1, 1, &materialSet, 0, nullptr);
 
                 vkCmdDrawIndexed(cmd, batch.indexCount, 1, batch.indexStart, 0, 0);
-
-                transientMaterialUbos_[frameSlot].emplace_back(matUBO, matUBOAlloc);
             }
         } else {
             // Draw entire model with first texture
@@ -2271,24 +2355,16 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
             matData.heightMapVariance = 0.0f;
             matData.normalMapStrength = normalMapStrength_;
 
-            VkBufferCreateInfo bci{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO};
+            // Sub-allocate material UBO from ring buffer
-            bci.size = sizeof(CharMaterialUBO);
+            uint32_t matOffset2 = materialRingOffset_[frameSlot];
-            bci.usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_UNIFORM_BUFFER_BIT;
+            if (matOffset2 + uboStride > ringCapacityBytes) continue; // ring exhausted
-            VmaAllocationCreateInfo aci{};
+            memcpy(static_cast<char*>(materialRingMapped_[frameSlot]) + matOffset2, &matData, sizeof(CharMaterialUBO));
-            aci.usage = VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU;
+            materialRingOffset_[frameSlot] = matOffset2 + uboStride;
-            aci.flags = VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_HOST_ACCESS_SEQUENTIAL_WRITE_BIT | VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT;
-            VmaAllocationInfo allocInfo{};
-            ::VkBuffer matUBO = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
-            VmaAllocation matUBOAlloc = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
-            vmaCreateBuffer(vkCtx_->getAllocator(), &bci, &aci, &matUBO, &matUBOAlloc, &allocInfo);
-            if (allocInfo.pMappedData) {
-                memcpy(allocInfo.pMappedData, &matData, sizeof(CharMaterialUBO));
-            }
 
             VkDescriptorImageInfo imgInfo = texPtr->descriptorInfo();
             VkDescriptorBufferInfo bufInfo{};
-            bufInfo.buffer = matUBO;
+            bufInfo.buffer = materialRingBuffer_[frameSlot];
-            bufInfo.offset = 0;
+            bufInfo.offset = matOffset2;
             bufInfo.range = sizeof(CharMaterialUBO);
             VkDescriptorImageInfo nhImgInfo2 = flatNormalTexture_->descriptorInfo();
 
@@ -2320,8 +2396,6 @@ void CharacterRenderer::render(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrameSet,
                                     pipelineLayout_, 1, 1, &materialSet, 0, nullptr);
 
             vkCmdDrawIndexed(cmd, gpuModel.indexCount, 1, 0, 0, 0);
-
-            transientMaterialUbos_[frameSlot].emplace_back(matUBO, matUBOAlloc);
         }
     }
 }
@@ -2513,9 +2587,8 @@ void CharacterRenderer::renderShadow(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const glm::mat4& light
         glm::vec3 diff = inst.position - shadowCenter;
         if (glm::dot(diff, diff) > shadowRadiusSq) continue;
 
-        auto modelIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+        if (!inst.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (modelIt == models.end()) continue;
+        const M2ModelGPU& gpuModel = *inst.cachedModel;
-        const M2ModelGPU& gpuModel = modelIt->second;
         if (!gpuModel.vertexBuffer) continue;
 
         glm::mat4 modelMat = inst.hasOverrideModelMatrix

src/rendering/m2_renderer.cpp

@@ -678,6 +678,7 @@ void M2Renderer::shutdown() {
     instances.clear();
     spatialGrid.clear();
     instanceIndexById.clear();
+    instanceDedupMap_.clear();
 
     // Delete cached textures
     textureCache.clear();
@@ -1184,6 +1185,10 @@ bool M2Renderer::loadModel(const pipeline::M2Model& model, uint32_t modelId) {
         }
     }
 
+    // Batch all GPU uploads (VB, IB, textures) into a single command buffer
+    // submission with one fence wait, instead of one fence wait per upload.
+    vkCtx_->beginUploadBatch();
+
     if (hasGeometry) {
         // Create VBO with interleaved vertex data
         // Format: position (3), normal (3), texcoord0 (2), texcoord1 (2), boneWeights (4), boneIndices (4 as float)
@@ -1535,6 +1540,8 @@ bool M2Renderer::loadModel(const pipeline::M2Model& model, uint32_t modelId) {
         }
     }
 
+    vkCtx_->endUploadBatch();
+
     // Allocate Vulkan descriptor sets and UBOs for each batch
     for (auto& bgpu : gpuModel.batches) {
         // Create combined UBO for M2Params (binding 1) + M2Material (binding 2)
@@ -1613,17 +1620,16 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstance(uint32_t modelId, const glm::vec3& position,
     }
     const auto& mdlRef = modelIt->second;
 
-    // Ground clutter is procedurally scattered and high-count; avoid O(N) dedup
+    // Deduplicate: skip if same model already at nearly the same position.
-    // scans that can hitch when new tiles stream in.
+    // Uses hash map for O(1) lookup instead of O(N) scan.
     if (!mdlRef.isGroundDetail) {
-        // Deduplicate: skip if same model already at nearly the same position
+        DedupKey dk{modelId,
-        for (const auto& existing : instances) {
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.x * 10.0f)),
-            if (existing.modelId == modelId) {
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.y * 10.0f)),
-                glm::vec3 d = existing.position - position;
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.z * 10.0f))};
-                if (glm::dot(d, d) < 0.01f) {
+        auto dit = instanceDedupMap_.find(dk);
-                    return existing.id;
+        if (dit != instanceDedupMap_.end()) {
-                }
+            return dit->second;
-            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -1651,6 +1657,7 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstance(uint32_t modelId, const glm::vec3& position,
     instance.cachedIsInvisibleTrap = mdlRef.isInvisibleTrap;
     instance.cachedIsInstancePortal = mdlRef.isInstancePortal;
     instance.cachedIsValid = mdlRef.isValid();
+    instance.cachedModel = &mdlRef;
 
     // Initialize animation: play first sequence (usually Stand/Idle)
     const auto& mdl = mdlRef;
@@ -1662,6 +1669,15 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstance(uint32_t modelId, const glm::vec3& position,
         instance.variationTimer = 3000.0f + static_cast<float>(rand() % 8000);
     }
 
+    // Register in dedup map before pushing (uses original position, not ground-adjusted)
+    if (!mdlRef.isGroundDetail) {
+        DedupKey dk{modelId,
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.x * 10.0f)),
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.y * 10.0f)),
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.z * 10.0f))};
+        instanceDedupMap_[dk] = instance.id;
+    }
+
     instances.push_back(instance);
     size_t idx = instances.size() - 1;
     // Track special instances for fast-path iteration
@@ -1700,13 +1716,15 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstanceWithMatrix(uint32_t modelId, const glm::mat4&
         return 0;
     }
 
-    // Deduplicate: skip if same model already at nearly the same position
+    // Deduplicate: O(1) hash lookup
-    for (const auto& existing : instances) {
+    {
-        if (existing.modelId == modelId) {
+        DedupKey dk{modelId,
-            glm::vec3 d = existing.position - position;
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.x * 10.0f)),
-            if (glm::dot(d, d) < 0.01f) {
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.y * 10.0f)),
-                return existing.id;
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.z * 10.0f))};
-            }
+        auto dit = instanceDedupMap_.find(dk);
+        if (dit != instanceDedupMap_.end()) {
+            return dit->second;
         }
     }
 
@@ -1731,6 +1749,7 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstanceWithMatrix(uint32_t modelId, const glm::mat4&
     instance.cachedIsGroundDetail = mdl2.isGroundDetail;
     instance.cachedIsInvisibleTrap = mdl2.isInvisibleTrap;
     instance.cachedIsValid = mdl2.isValid();
+    instance.cachedModel = &mdl2;
 
     // Initialize animation
     if (mdl2.hasAnimation && !mdl2.disableAnimation && !mdl2.sequences.empty()) {
@@ -1743,6 +1762,15 @@ uint32_t M2Renderer::createInstanceWithMatrix(uint32_t modelId, const glm::mat4&
         instance.animTime = static_cast<float>(rand()) / RAND_MAX * 10000.0f;
     }
 
+    // Register in dedup map
+    {
+        DedupKey dk{modelId,
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.x * 10.0f)),
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.y * 10.0f)),
+                    static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(position.z * 10.0f))};
+        instanceDedupMap_[dk] = instance.id;
+    }
+
     instances.push_back(instance);
     size_t idx = instances.size() - 1;
     if (mdl2.isSmoke) {
@@ -2000,9 +2028,8 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
         instance.animTime += dtMs * (instance.animSpeed - 1.0f);
 
         // For animation looping/variation, we need the actual model data.
-        auto it = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (it == models.end()) continue;
+        const M2ModelGPU& model = *instance.cachedModel;
-        const M2ModelGPU& model = it->second;
 
         // Validate sequence index
         if (instance.currentSequenceIndex < 0 ||
@@ -2058,6 +2085,14 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
         float paddedRadius = std::max(cullRadius * 1.5f, cullRadius + 3.0f);
         if (cullRadius > 0.0f && !updateFrustum.intersectsSphere(instance.position, paddedRadius)) continue;
 
+        // Distance-based frame skipping: update distant bones less frequently
+        uint32_t boneInterval = 1;
+        if (distSq > 200.0f * 200.0f) boneInterval = 8;
+        else if (distSq > 100.0f * 100.0f) boneInterval = 4;
+        else if (distSq > 50.0f * 50.0f) boneInterval = 2;
+        instance.frameSkipCounter++;
+        if ((instance.frameSkipCounter % boneInterval) != 0) continue;
+
         boneWorkIndices_.push_back(idx);
     }
 
@@ -2071,9 +2106,8 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
             for (size_t i : boneWorkIndices_) {
                 if (i >= instances.size()) continue;
                 auto& inst = instances[i];
-                auto mdlIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+                if (!inst.cachedModel) continue;
-                if (mdlIt == models.end()) continue;
+                computeBoneMatrices(*inst.cachedModel, inst);
-                computeBoneMatrices(mdlIt->second, inst);
             }
         } else {
             // Parallel — dispatch across worker threads
@@ -2086,9 +2120,8 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
                 for (size_t i : boneWorkIndices_) {
                     if (i >= instances.size()) continue;
                     auto& inst = instances[i];
-                    auto mdlIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+                    if (!inst.cachedModel) continue;
-                    if (mdlIt == models.end()) continue;
+                    computeBoneMatrices(*inst.cachedModel, inst);
-                    computeBoneMatrices(mdlIt->second, inst);
                 }
             } else {
                 const size_t chunkSize = animCount / numThreads;
@@ -2109,9 +2142,8 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
                                 size_t idx = boneWorkIndices_[j];
                                 if (idx >= instances.size()) continue;
                                 auto& inst = instances[idx];
-                                auto mdlIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+                                if (!inst.cachedModel) continue;
-                                if (mdlIt == models.end()) continue;
+                                computeBoneMatrices(*inst.cachedModel, inst);
-                                computeBoneMatrices(mdlIt->second, inst);
                             }
                         }));
                     start = end;
@@ -2133,9 +2165,8 @@ void M2Renderer::update(float deltaTime, const glm::vec3& cameraPos, const glm::
         glm::vec3 toCam = instance.position - cachedCamPos_;
         float distSq = glm::dot(toCam, toCam);
         if (distSq > cachedMaxRenderDistSq_) continue;
-        auto mdlIt = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (mdlIt == models.end()) continue;
+        emitParticles(instance, *instance.cachedModel, deltaTime);
-        emitParticles(instance, mdlIt->second, deltaTime);
         updateParticles(instance, deltaTime);
     }
 
@@ -2839,9 +2870,8 @@ void M2Renderer::renderShadow(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const glm::mat4& lightSpaceMa
             glm::vec3 diff = instance.position - shadowCenter;
             if (glm::dot(diff, diff) > shadowRadiusSq) continue;
 
-            auto modelIt = models.find(instance.modelId);
+            if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-            if (modelIt == models.end()) continue;
+            const M2ModelGPU& model = *instance.cachedModel;
-            const M2ModelGPU& model = modelIt->second;
 
             // Filter: only draw foliage models in foliage pass, non-foliage in non-foliage pass
             if (model.shadowWindFoliage != foliagePass) continue;
@@ -2947,8 +2977,7 @@ std::vector<glm::vec3> M2Renderer::getWaterVegetationPositions(const glm::vec3&
     std::vector<glm::vec3> result;
     float maxDistSq = maxDist * maxDist;
     for (const auto& inst : instances) {
-        auto it = models.find(inst.modelId);
+        if (!inst.cachedModel || !inst.cachedModel->isWaterVegetation) continue;
-        if (it == models.end() || !it->second.isWaterVegetation) continue;
         glm::vec3 diff = inst.position - camPos;
         if (glm::dot(diff, diff) <= maxDistSq) {
             result.push_back(inst.position);
@@ -3059,9 +3088,8 @@ void M2Renderer::emitParticles(M2Instance& inst, const M2ModelGPU& gpu, float dt
 }
 
 void M2Renderer::updateParticles(M2Instance& inst, float dt) {
-    auto it = models.find(inst.modelId);
+    if (!inst.cachedModel) return;
-    if (it == models.end()) return;
+    const auto& gpu = *inst.cachedModel;
-    const auto& gpu = it->second;
 
     for (size_t i = 0; i < inst.particles.size(); ) {
         auto& p = inst.particles[i];
@@ -3136,9 +3164,8 @@ void M2Renderer::renderM2Particles(VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkDescriptorSet perFrame
 
     for (auto& inst : instances) {
         if (inst.particles.empty()) continue;
-        auto it = models.find(inst.modelId);
+        if (!inst.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (it == models.end()) continue;
+        const auto& gpu = *inst.cachedModel;
-        const auto& gpu = it->second;
 
         for (const auto& p : inst.particles) {
             if (p.emitterIndex < 0 || p.emitterIndex >= static_cast<int>(gpu.particleEmitters.size())) continue;
@@ -3477,6 +3504,7 @@ void M2Renderer::clear() {
     instances.clear();
     spatialGrid.clear();
     instanceIndexById.clear();
+    instanceDedupMap_.clear();
     smokeParticles.clear();
     smokeInstanceIndices_.clear();
     portalInstanceIndices_.clear();
@@ -3513,6 +3541,7 @@ M2Renderer::GridCell M2Renderer::toCell(const glm::vec3& p) const {
 void M2Renderer::rebuildSpatialIndex() {
     spatialGrid.clear();
     instanceIndexById.clear();
+    instanceDedupMap_.clear();
     instanceIndexById.reserve(instances.size());
     smokeInstanceIndices_.clear();
     portalInstanceIndices_.clear();
@@ -3521,9 +3550,22 @@ void M2Renderer::rebuildSpatialIndex() {
     particleInstanceIndices_.clear();
 
     for (size_t i = 0; i < instances.size(); i++) {
-        const auto& inst = instances[i];
+        auto& inst = instances[i];
         instanceIndexById[inst.id] = i;
 
+        // Re-cache model pointer (may have changed after model map modifications)
+        auto mdlIt = models.find(inst.modelId);
+        inst.cachedModel = (mdlIt != models.end()) ? &mdlIt->second : nullptr;
+
+        // Rebuild dedup map (skip ground detail)
+        if (!inst.cachedIsGroundDetail) {
+            DedupKey dk{inst.modelId,
+                        static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(inst.position.x * 10.0f)),
+                        static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(inst.position.y * 10.0f)),
+                        static_cast<int32_t>(std::round(inst.position.z * 10.0f))};
+            instanceDedupMap_[dk] = inst.id;
+        }
+
         if (inst.cachedIsSmoke) {
             smokeInstanceIndices_.push_back(i);
         }
@@ -3647,8 +3689,18 @@ VkTexture* M2Renderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path, uint32_t texFlags) {
         containsToken(key, "campfire") ||
         containsToken(key, "bonfire");
 
-    // Load BLP texture
+    // Check pre-decoded BLP cache first (populated by background worker threads)
-    pipeline::BLPImage blp = assetManager->loadTexture(key);
+    pipeline::BLPImage blp;
+    if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
+        auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(key);
+        if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
+            blp = std::move(pit->second);
+            predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+        }
+    }
+    if (!blp.isValid()) {
+        blp = assetManager->loadTexture(key);
+    }
     if (!blp.isValid()) {
         // Return white fallback but don't cache the failure — MPQ reads can
         // fail transiently during streaming; allow retry on next model load.
@@ -3714,9 +3766,8 @@ VkTexture* M2Renderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path, uint32_t texFlags) {
 uint32_t M2Renderer::getTotalTriangleCount() const {
     uint32_t total = 0;
     for (const auto& instance : instances) {
-        auto it = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (instance.cachedModel) {
-        if (it != models.end()) {
+            total += instance.cachedModel->indexCount / 3;
-            total += it->second.indexCount / 3;
         }
     }
     return total;
@@ -3738,11 +3789,10 @@ std::optional<float> M2Renderer::getFloorHeight(float glX, float glY, float glZ,
             continue;
         }
 
-        auto it = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (it == models.end()) continue;
         if (instance.scale <= 0.001f) continue;
 
-        const M2ModelGPU& model = it->second;
+        const M2ModelGPU& model = *instance.cachedModel;
         if (model.collisionNoBlock || model.isInvisibleTrap || model.isSpellEffect) continue;
         if (instance.skipCollision) continue;
 
@@ -3894,10 +3944,9 @@ bool M2Renderer::checkCollision(const glm::vec3& from, const glm::vec3& to,
         if (from.z > instance.worldBoundsMax.z + 2.5f && adjustedPos.z > instance.worldBoundsMax.z + 2.5f) continue;
         if (from.z + 2.5f < instance.worldBoundsMin.z && adjustedPos.z + 2.5f < instance.worldBoundsMin.z) continue;
 
-        auto it = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (it == models.end()) continue;
 
-        const M2ModelGPU& model = it->second;
+        const M2ModelGPU& model = *instance.cachedModel;
         if (model.collisionNoBlock || model.isInvisibleTrap || model.isSpellEffect) continue;
         if (instance.skipCollision) continue;
         if (instance.scale <= 0.001f) continue;
@@ -4135,10 +4184,9 @@ float M2Renderer::raycastBoundingBoxes(const glm::vec3& origin, const glm::vec3&
             continue;
         }
 
-        auto it = models.find(instance.modelId);
+        if (!instance.cachedModel) continue;
-        if (it == models.end()) continue;
 
-        const M2ModelGPU& model = it->second;
+        const M2ModelGPU& model = *instance.cachedModel;
         if (model.collisionNoBlock || model.isInvisibleTrap || model.isSpellEffect) continue;
         glm::vec3 localMin, localMax;
         getTightCollisionBounds(model, localMin, localMax);

src/rendering/renderer.cpp

@@ -2434,6 +2434,9 @@ void Renderer::update(float deltaTime) {
         cameraController->update(deltaTime);
         auto cameraEnd = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
         lastCameraUpdateMs = std::chrono::duration<double, std::milli>(cameraEnd - cameraStart).count();
+        if (lastCameraUpdateMs > 3.0) {
+            LOG_WARNING("SLOW cameraController->update: ", lastCameraUpdateMs, "ms");
+        }
 
         // Update 3D audio listener position/orientation to match camera
         if (camera) {
@@ -2527,7 +2530,13 @@ void Renderer::update(float deltaTime) {
 
     // Update terrain streaming
     if (terrainManager && camera) {
+        auto terrStart = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
         terrainManager->update(*camera, deltaTime);
+        float terrMs = std::chrono::duration<float, std::milli>(
+            std::chrono::steady_clock::now() - terrStart).count();
+        if (terrMs > 5.0f) {
+            LOG_WARNING("SLOW terrainManager->update: ", terrMs, "ms");
+        }
     }
 
     // Update sky system (skybox time, star twinkle, clouds, celestial moon phases)
@@ -2579,7 +2588,14 @@ void Renderer::update(float deltaTime) {
 
     // Update character animations
     if (characterRenderer && camera) {
+        auto charAnimStart = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
         characterRenderer->update(deltaTime, camera->getPosition());
+        float charAnimMs = std::chrono::duration<float, std::milli>(
+            std::chrono::steady_clock::now() - charAnimStart).count();
+        if (charAnimMs > 5.0f) {
+            LOG_WARNING("SLOW characterRenderer->update: ", charAnimMs, "ms (",
+                        characterRenderer->getInstanceCount(), " instances)");
+        }
     }
 
     // Update AudioEngine (cleanup finished sounds, etc.)
@@ -2766,8 +2782,15 @@ void Renderer::update(float deltaTime) {
 
     // Update M2 doodad animations (pass camera for frustum-culling bone computation)
     if (m2Renderer && camera) {
+        auto m2Start = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
         m2Renderer->update(deltaTime, camera->getPosition(),
                            camera->getProjectionMatrix() * camera->getViewMatrix());
+        float m2Ms = std::chrono::duration<float, std::milli>(
+            std::chrono::steady_clock::now() - m2Start).count();
+        if (m2Ms > 3.0f) {
+            LOG_WARNING("SLOW m2Renderer->update: ", m2Ms, "ms (",
+                        m2Renderer->getInstanceCount(), " instances)");
+        }
     }
 
     // Helper: play zone music, dispatching local files (file: prefix) vs MPQ paths

src/rendering/terrain_manager.cpp

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include "rendering/terrain_manager.hpp"
 #include "rendering/terrain_renderer.hpp"
+#include "rendering/vk_context.hpp"
 #include "rendering/water_renderer.hpp"
 #include "rendering/m2_renderer.hpp"
 #include "rendering/wmo_renderer.hpp"
@@ -53,12 +54,12 @@ int computeTerrainWorkerCount() {
 
     unsigned hc = std::thread::hardware_concurrency();
     if (hc > 0) {
-        // Terrain streaming should leave CPU room for render/update threads.
+        // Use most cores for loading — leave 1-2 for render/update threads.
-        const unsigned availableCores = (hc > 1u) ? (hc - 1u) : 1u;
+        const unsigned reserved = (hc >= 8u) ? 2u : 1u;
-        const unsigned targetWorkers = std::max(2u, availableCores / 2u);
+        const unsigned targetWorkers = std::max(4u, hc - reserved);
         return static_cast<int>(targetWorkers);
     }
-    return 2;  // Fallback
+    return 4;  // Fallback
 }
 
 bool decodeLayerAlpha(const pipeline::MapChunk& chunk, size_t layerIdx, std::vector<uint8_t>& outAlpha) {
@@ -230,9 +231,14 @@ bool TerrainManager::loadTile(int x, int y) {
         return false;
     }
 
+    VkContext* vkCtx = terrainRenderer ? terrainRenderer->getVkContext() : nullptr;
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
     FinalizingTile ft;
     ft.pending = std::move(pending);
     while (!advanceFinalization(ft)) {}
+
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->endUploadBatchSync();  // Sync — caller expects tile ready
     return true;
 }
 
@@ -372,6 +378,15 @@ std::shared_ptr<PendingTile> TerrainManager::prepareTile(int x, int y) {
                                    int& skippedSkinNotFound) -> bool {
         if (preparedModelIds.find(modelId) != preparedModelIds.end()) return true;
 
+        // Skip file I/O + parsing for models already uploaded to GPU from previous tiles
+        {
+            std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+            if (uploadedM2Ids_.count(modelId)) {
+                preparedModelIds.insert(modelId);
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+
         std::vector<uint8_t> m2Data = assetManager->readFile(m2Path);
         if (m2Data.empty()) {
             skippedFileNotFound++;
@@ -397,6 +412,20 @@ std::shared_ptr<PendingTile> TerrainManager::prepareTile(int x, int y) {
             return false;
         }
 
+        // Pre-decode M2 model textures on background thread
+        for (const auto& tex : m2Model.textures) {
+            if (tex.filename.empty()) continue;
+            std::string texKey = tex.filename;
+            std::replace(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), '/', '\\');
+            std::transform(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), texKey.begin(),
+                           [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+            if (pending->preloadedM2Textures.find(texKey) != pending->preloadedM2Textures.end()) continue;
+            auto blp = assetManager->loadTexture(texKey);
+            if (blp.isValid()) {
+                pending->preloadedM2Textures[texKey] = std::move(blp);
+            }
+        }
+
         PendingTile::M2Ready ready;
         ready.modelId = modelId;
         ready.model = std::move(m2Model);
@@ -551,19 +580,44 @@ std::shared_ptr<PendingTile> TerrainManager::prepareTile(int x, int y) {
                         }
 
                         uint32_t doodadModelId = static_cast<uint32_t>(std::hash<std::string>{}(m2Path));
-                        std::vector<uint8_t> m2Data = assetManager->readFile(m2Path);
-                        if (m2Data.empty()) continue;
 
-                        pipeline::M2Model m2Model = pipeline::M2Loader::load(m2Data);
+                        // Skip file I/O if model already uploaded from a previous tile
-                        if (m2Model.name.empty()) {
+                        bool modelAlreadyUploaded = false;
-                            m2Model.name = m2Path;
+                        {
+                            std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+                            modelAlreadyUploaded = uploadedM2Ids_.count(doodadModelId) > 0;
                         }
-                        std::string skinPath = m2Path.substr(0, m2Path.size() - 3) + "00.skin";
+
-                        std::vector<uint8_t> skinData = assetManager->readFile(skinPath);
+                        pipeline::M2Model m2Model;
-                        if (!skinData.empty() && m2Model.version >= 264) {
+                        if (!modelAlreadyUploaded) {
-                            pipeline::M2Loader::loadSkin(skinData, m2Model);
+                            std::vector<uint8_t> m2Data = assetManager->readFile(m2Path);
+                            if (m2Data.empty()) continue;
+
+                            m2Model = pipeline::M2Loader::load(m2Data);
+                            if (m2Model.name.empty()) {
+                                m2Model.name = m2Path;
+                            }
+                            std::string skinPath = m2Path.substr(0, m2Path.size() - 3) + "00.skin";
+                            std::vector<uint8_t> skinData = assetManager->readFile(skinPath);
+                            if (!skinData.empty() && m2Model.version >= 264) {
+                                pipeline::M2Loader::loadSkin(skinData, m2Model);
+                            }
+                            if (!m2Model.isValid()) continue;
+
+                            // Pre-decode doodad M2 textures on background thread
+                            for (const auto& tex : m2Model.textures) {
+                                if (tex.filename.empty()) continue;
+                                std::string texKey = tex.filename;
+                                std::replace(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), '/', '\\');
+                                std::transform(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), texKey.begin(),
+                                               [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+                                if (pending->preloadedM2Textures.find(texKey) != pending->preloadedM2Textures.end()) continue;
+                                auto blp = assetManager->loadTexture(texKey);
+                                if (blp.isValid()) {
+                                    pending->preloadedM2Textures[texKey] = std::move(blp);
+                                }
+                            }
                         }
-                        if (!m2Model.isValid()) continue;
 
                         // Build doodad's local transform (WoW coordinates)
                         // WMO doodads use quaternion rotation
@@ -633,6 +687,32 @@ std::shared_ptr<PendingTile> TerrainManager::prepareTile(int x, int y) {
                     }
                 }
 
+                // Pre-decode WMO textures on background thread
+                for (const auto& texPath : wmoModel.textures) {
+                    if (texPath.empty()) continue;
+                    std::string texKey = texPath;
+                    // Truncate at NUL (WMO paths can have stray bytes)
+                    size_t nul = texKey.find('\0');
+                    if (nul != std::string::npos) texKey.resize(nul);
+                    std::replace(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), '/', '\\');
+                    std::transform(texKey.begin(), texKey.end(), texKey.begin(),
+                                   [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
+                    if (texKey.empty()) continue;
+                    if (pending->preloadedWMOTextures.find(texKey) != pending->preloadedWMOTextures.end()) continue;
+                    // Try .blp variant
+                    std::string blpKey = texKey;
+                    if (blpKey.size() >= 4) {
+                        std::string ext = blpKey.substr(blpKey.size() - 4);
+                        if (ext == ".tga" || ext == ".dds") {
+                            blpKey = blpKey.substr(0, blpKey.size() - 4) + ".blp";
+                        }
+                    }
+                    auto blp = assetManager->loadTexture(blpKey);
+                    if (blp.isValid()) {
+                        pending->preloadedWMOTextures[blpKey] = std::move(blp);
+                    }
+                }
+
                 PendingTile::WMOReady ready;
                 // Cache WMO model uploads by path; placement dedup uses uniqueId separately.
                 ready.modelId = static_cast<uint32_t>(std::hash<std::string>{}(wmoPath));
@@ -695,27 +775,39 @@ bool TerrainManager::advanceFinalization(FinalizingTile& ft) {
             return true;
         }
 
-        LOG_DEBUG("Finalizing tile [", x, ",", y, "] (incremental)");
+        // Upload pre-loaded textures (once)
-
+        if (!ft.terrainPreloaded) {
-        // Upload pre-loaded textures
+            LOG_DEBUG("Finalizing tile [", x, ",", y, "] (incremental)");
-        if (!pending->preloadedTextures.empty()) {
+            if (!pending->preloadedTextures.empty()) {
-            terrainRenderer->uploadPreloadedTextures(pending->preloadedTextures);
+                terrainRenderer->uploadPreloadedTextures(pending->preloadedTextures);
-        }
-
-        // Upload terrain mesh to GPU
-        if (!terrainRenderer->loadTerrain(pending->mesh, pending->terrain.textures, x, y)) {
-            LOG_ERROR("Failed to upload terrain to GPU for tile [", x, ",", y, "]");
-            failedTiles[coord] = true;
-            {
-                std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(queueMutex);
-                pendingTiles.erase(coord);
             }
-            ft.phase = FinalizationPhase::DONE;
+            ft.terrainPreloaded = true;
-            return true;
+            // Yield after preload to give time budget a chance to interrupt
+            return false;
         }
 
-        // Load water immediately after terrain (same frame) — water is now
+        // Upload terrain chunks incrementally (16 per call to spread across frames)
-        // deduplicated to ~1-2 merged surfaces per tile, so this is fast.
+        if (!ft.terrainMeshDone) {
+            if (pending->mesh.validChunkCount == 0) {
+                LOG_ERROR("Failed to upload terrain to GPU for tile [", x, ",", y, "]");
+                failedTiles[coord] = true;
+                {
+                    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(queueMutex);
+                    pendingTiles.erase(coord);
+                }
+                ft.phase = FinalizationPhase::DONE;
+                return true;
+            }
+            bool allDone = terrainRenderer->loadTerrainIncremental(
+                pending->mesh, pending->terrain.textures, x, y,
+                ft.terrainChunkNext, 32);
+            if (!allDone) {
+                return false; // More chunks remain — yield to time budget
+            }
+            ft.terrainMeshDone = true;
+        }
+
+        // Load water after all terrain chunks are uploaded
         if (waterRenderer) {
             size_t beforeSurfaces = waterRenderer->getSurfaceCount();
             waterRenderer->loadFromTerrain(pending->terrain, true, x, y);
@@ -738,13 +830,24 @@ bool TerrainManager::advanceFinalization(FinalizingTile& ft) {
     }
 
     case FinalizationPhase::M2_MODELS: {
-        // Upload ONE M2 model per call
+        // Upload multiple M2 models per call (batched GPU uploads)
         if (m2Renderer && ft.m2ModelIndex < pending->m2Models.size()) {
-            auto& m2Ready = pending->m2Models[ft.m2ModelIndex];
+            // Set pre-decoded BLP cache so loadTexture() skips main-thread BLP decode
-            if (m2Renderer->loadModel(m2Ready.model, m2Ready.modelId)) {
+            m2Renderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(&pending->preloadedM2Textures);
-                ft.uploadedM2ModelIds.insert(m2Ready.modelId);
+            constexpr size_t kModelsPerStep = 4;
+            size_t uploaded = 0;
+            while (ft.m2ModelIndex < pending->m2Models.size() && uploaded < kModelsPerStep) {
+                auto& m2Ready = pending->m2Models[ft.m2ModelIndex];
+                if (m2Renderer->loadModel(m2Ready.model, m2Ready.modelId)) {
+                    ft.uploadedM2ModelIds.insert(m2Ready.modelId);
+                    // Track uploaded model IDs so background threads can skip re-reading
+                    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+                    uploadedM2Ids_.insert(m2Ready.modelId);
+                }
+                ft.m2ModelIndex++;
+                uploaded++;
             }
-            ft.m2ModelIndex++;
+            m2Renderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(nullptr);
             // Stay in this phase until all models uploaded
             if (ft.m2ModelIndex < pending->m2Models.size()) {
                 return false;
@@ -786,22 +889,28 @@ bool TerrainManager::advanceFinalization(FinalizingTile& ft) {
     }
 
     case FinalizationPhase::WMO_MODELS: {
-        // Upload ONE WMO model per call
+        // Upload multiple WMO models per call (batched GPU uploads)
         if (wmoRenderer && assetManager) {
             wmoRenderer->initialize(nullptr, VK_NULL_HANDLE, assetManager);
+            // Set pre-decoded BLP cache and defer normal maps during streaming
+            wmoRenderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(&pending->preloadedWMOTextures);
+            wmoRenderer->setDeferNormalMaps(true);
 
-            if (ft.wmoModelIndex < pending->wmoModels.size()) {
+            constexpr size_t kWmosPerStep = 1;
+            size_t uploaded = 0;
+            while (ft.wmoModelIndex < pending->wmoModels.size() && uploaded < kWmosPerStep) {
                 auto& wmoReady = pending->wmoModels[ft.wmoModelIndex];
-                // Deduplicate
                 if (wmoReady.uniqueId != 0 && placedWmoIds.count(wmoReady.uniqueId)) {
                     ft.wmoModelIndex++;
-                    if (ft.wmoModelIndex < pending->wmoModels.size()) return false;
                 } else {
                     wmoRenderer->loadModel(wmoReady.model, wmoReady.modelId);
                     ft.wmoModelIndex++;
-                    if (ft.wmoModelIndex < pending->wmoModels.size()) return false;
+                    uploaded++;
                 }
             }
+            wmoRenderer->setDeferNormalMaps(false);
+            wmoRenderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(nullptr);
+            if (ft.wmoModelIndex < pending->wmoModels.size()) return false;
         }
         ft.phase = FinalizationPhase::WMO_INSTANCES;
         return false;
@@ -862,17 +971,28 @@ bool TerrainManager::advanceFinalization(FinalizingTile& ft) {
     }
 
     case FinalizationPhase::WMO_DOODADS: {
-        // Upload ONE WMO doodad M2 per call
+        // Upload multiple WMO doodad M2s per call (batched GPU uploads)
         if (m2Renderer && ft.wmoDoodadIndex < pending->wmoDoodads.size()) {
-            auto& doodad = pending->wmoDoodads[ft.wmoDoodadIndex];
+            // Set pre-decoded BLP cache for doodad M2 textures
-            m2Renderer->loadModel(doodad.model, doodad.modelId);
+            m2Renderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(&pending->preloadedM2Textures);
-            uint32_t wmoDoodadInstId = m2Renderer->createInstanceWithMatrix(
+            constexpr size_t kDoodadsPerStep = 4;
-                doodad.modelId, doodad.modelMatrix, doodad.worldPosition);
+            size_t uploaded = 0;
-            if (wmoDoodadInstId) {
+            while (ft.wmoDoodadIndex < pending->wmoDoodads.size() && uploaded < kDoodadsPerStep) {
-                m2Renderer->setSkipCollision(wmoDoodadInstId, true);
+                auto& doodad = pending->wmoDoodads[ft.wmoDoodadIndex];
-                ft.m2InstanceIds.push_back(wmoDoodadInstId);
+                if (m2Renderer->loadModel(doodad.model, doodad.modelId)) {
+                    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+                    uploadedM2Ids_.insert(doodad.modelId);
+                }
+                uint32_t wmoDoodadInstId = m2Renderer->createInstanceWithMatrix(
+                    doodad.modelId, doodad.modelMatrix, doodad.worldPosition);
+                if (wmoDoodadInstId) {
+                    m2Renderer->setSkipCollision(wmoDoodadInstId, true);
+                    ft.m2InstanceIds.push_back(wmoDoodadInstId);
+                }
+                ft.wmoDoodadIndex++;
+                uploaded++;
             }
-            ft.wmoDoodadIndex++;
+            m2Renderer->setPredecodedBLPCache(nullptr);
             if (ft.wmoDoodadIndex < pending->wmoDoodads.size()) return false;
         }
         ft.phase = FinalizationPhase::WATER;
@@ -1030,11 +1150,6 @@ void TerrainManager::workerLoop() {
 }
 
 void TerrainManager::processReadyTiles() {
-    // Process tiles with time budget to avoid frame spikes
-    // Taxi mode gets a slightly larger budget to avoid visible late-pop terrain/models.
-    const float timeBudgetMs = taxiStreamingMode_ ? 8.0f : 5.0f;
-    auto startTime = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
-
     // Move newly ready tiles into the finalizing deque.
     // Keep them in pendingTiles so streamTiles() won't re-enqueue them.
     {
@@ -1050,21 +1165,32 @@ void TerrainManager::processReadyTiles() {
         }
     }
 
-    // Drive incremental finalization within time budget
+    VkContext* vkCtx = terrainRenderer ? terrainRenderer->getVkContext() : nullptr;
-    while (!finalizingTiles_.empty()) {
+
+    // Reclaim completed async uploads from previous frames (non-blocking)
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->pollUploadBatches();
+
+    // Nothing to finalize — done.
+    if (finalizingTiles_.empty()) return;
+
+    // Async upload batch: record GPU copies into a command buffer, submit with
+    // a fence, but DON'T wait.  The fence is polled on subsequent frames.
+    // This eliminates the main-thread stall from vkWaitForFences entirely.
+    const int maxSteps = taxiStreamingMode_ ? 8 : 2;
+    int steps = 0;
+
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
+    while (!finalizingTiles_.empty() && steps < maxSteps) {
         auto& ft = finalizingTiles_.front();
         bool done = advanceFinalization(ft);
-
         if (done) {
             finalizingTiles_.pop_front();
         }
-
+        steps++;
-        auto now = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
-        float elapsedMs = std::chrono::duration<float, std::milli>(now - startTime).count();
-        if (elapsedMs >= timeBudgetMs) {
-            break;
-        }
     }
+
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->endUploadBatch();  // Async — submits but doesn't wait
 }
 
 void TerrainManager::processAllReadyTiles() {
@@ -1082,12 +1208,19 @@ void TerrainManager::processAllReadyTiles() {
             }
         }
     }
+
+    // Batch all GPU uploads across all tiles into a single submission
+    VkContext* vkCtx = terrainRenderer ? terrainRenderer->getVkContext() : nullptr;
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
     // Finalize all tiles completely (no time budget — used for loading screens)
     while (!finalizingTiles_.empty()) {
         auto& ft = finalizingTiles_.front();
         while (!advanceFinalization(ft)) {}
         finalizingTiles_.pop_front();
     }
+
+    if (vkCtx) vkCtx->endUploadBatchSync();  // Sync — load screen needs data ready
 }
 
 void TerrainManager::processOneReadyTile() {
@@ -1106,9 +1239,14 @@ void TerrainManager::processOneReadyTile() {
     }
     // Finalize ONE tile completely, then return so caller can update the screen
     if (!finalizingTiles_.empty()) {
+        VkContext* vkCtx = terrainRenderer ? terrainRenderer->getVkContext() : nullptr;
+        if (vkCtx) vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
         auto& ft = finalizingTiles_.front();
         while (!advanceFinalization(ft)) {}
         finalizingTiles_.pop_front();
+
+        if (vkCtx) vkCtx->endUploadBatchSync();  // Sync — load screen needs data ready
     }
 }
 
@@ -1328,6 +1466,10 @@ void TerrainManager::unloadAll() {
     finalizingTiles_.clear();
     placedDoodadIds.clear();
     placedWmoIds.clear();
+    {
+        std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+        uploadedM2Ids_.clear();
+    }
 
     LOG_INFO("Unloading all terrain tiles");
     loadedTiles.clear();
@@ -1376,6 +1518,10 @@ void TerrainManager::softReset() {
     finalizingTiles_.clear();
     placedDoodadIds.clear();
     placedWmoIds.clear();
+    {
+        std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(uploadedM2IdsMutex_);
+        uploadedM2Ids_.clear();
+    }
 
     // Clear tile cache — keys are (x,y) without map name, so stale entries from
     // a different map with overlapping coordinates would produce wrong geometry.

src/rendering/terrain_renderer.cpp

@@ -326,6 +326,8 @@ bool TerrainRenderer::loadTerrain(const pipeline::TerrainMesh& mesh,
     }
     LOG_DEBUG("Loading terrain mesh: ", mesh.validChunkCount, " chunks");
 
+    vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
     for (int y = 0; y < 16; y++) {
         for (int x = 0; x < 16; x++) {
             const auto& chunk = mesh.getChunk(x, y);
@@ -405,10 +407,102 @@ bool TerrainRenderer::loadTerrain(const pipeline::TerrainMesh& mesh,
         }
     }
 
+    vkCtx->endUploadBatch();
+
     LOG_DEBUG("Loaded ", chunks.size(), " terrain chunks to GPU");
     return !chunks.empty();
 }
 
+bool TerrainRenderer::loadTerrainIncremental(const pipeline::TerrainMesh& mesh,
+                                              const std::vector<std::string>& texturePaths,
+                                              int tileX, int tileY,
+                                              int& chunkIndex, int maxChunksPerCall) {
+    // Batch all GPU uploads (VBs, IBs, textures) into a single command buffer
+    // submission with one fence wait, instead of one per buffer/texture.
+    vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
+    int uploaded = 0;
+    while (chunkIndex < 256 && uploaded < maxChunksPerCall) {
+        int cy = chunkIndex / 16;
+        int cx = chunkIndex % 16;
+        chunkIndex++;
+
+        const auto& chunk = mesh.getChunk(cx, cy);
+        if (!chunk.isValid()) continue;
+
+        TerrainChunkGPU gpuChunk = uploadChunk(chunk);
+        if (!gpuChunk.isValid()) continue;
+
+        calculateBoundingSphere(gpuChunk, chunk);
+
+        if (!chunk.layers.empty()) {
+            uint32_t baseTexId = chunk.layers[0].textureId;
+            if (baseTexId < texturePaths.size()) {
+                gpuChunk.baseTexture = loadTexture(texturePaths[baseTexId]);
+            } else {
+                gpuChunk.baseTexture = whiteTexture.get();
+            }
+
+            for (size_t i = 1; i < chunk.layers.size() && i < 4; i++) {
+                const auto& layer = chunk.layers[i];
+                int li = static_cast<int>(i) - 1;
+
+                VkTexture* layerTex = whiteTexture.get();
+                if (layer.textureId < texturePaths.size()) {
+                    layerTex = loadTexture(texturePaths[layer.textureId]);
+                }
+                gpuChunk.layerTextures[li] = layerTex;
+
+                VkTexture* alphaTex = opaqueAlphaTexture.get();
+                if (!layer.alphaData.empty()) {
+                    alphaTex = createAlphaTexture(layer.alphaData);
+                }
+                gpuChunk.alphaTextures[li] = alphaTex;
+                gpuChunk.layerCount = static_cast<int>(i);
+            }
+        } else {
+            gpuChunk.baseTexture = whiteTexture.get();
+        }
+
+        gpuChunk.tileX = tileX;
+        gpuChunk.tileY = tileY;
+
+        TerrainParamsUBO params{};
+        params.layerCount = gpuChunk.layerCount;
+        params.hasLayer1 = gpuChunk.layerCount >= 1 ? 1 : 0;
+        params.hasLayer2 = gpuChunk.layerCount >= 2 ? 1 : 0;
+        params.hasLayer3 = gpuChunk.layerCount >= 3 ? 1 : 0;
+
+        VkBufferCreateInfo bufCI{};
+        bufCI.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO;
+        bufCI.size = sizeof(TerrainParamsUBO);
+        bufCI.usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_UNIFORM_BUFFER_BIT;
+
+        VmaAllocationCreateInfo allocCI{};
+        allocCI.usage = VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU;
+        allocCI.flags = VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT;
+
+        VmaAllocationInfo mapInfo{};
+        vmaCreateBuffer(vkCtx->getAllocator(), &bufCI, &allocCI,
+                        &gpuChunk.paramsUBO, &gpuChunk.paramsAlloc, &mapInfo);
+        if (mapInfo.pMappedData) {
+            std::memcpy(mapInfo.pMappedData, &params, sizeof(params));
+        }
+
+        gpuChunk.materialSet = allocateMaterialSet();
+        if (gpuChunk.materialSet) {
+            writeMaterialDescriptors(gpuChunk.materialSet, gpuChunk);
+        }
+
+        chunks.push_back(std::move(gpuChunk));
+        uploaded++;
+    }
+
+    vkCtx->endUploadBatch();
+
+    return chunkIndex >= 256;
+}
+
 TerrainChunkGPU TerrainRenderer::uploadChunk(const pipeline::ChunkMesh& chunk) {
     TerrainChunkGPU gpuChunk;
 
@@ -496,6 +590,9 @@ void TerrainRenderer::uploadPreloadedTextures(
                        [](unsigned char c) { return static_cast<char>(std::tolower(c)); });
         return key;
     };
+    // Batch all texture uploads into a single command buffer submission
+    vkCtx->beginUploadBatch();
+
     for (const auto& [path, blp] : textures) {
         std::string key = normalizeKey(path);
         if (textureCache.find(key) != textureCache.end()) continue;
@@ -515,6 +612,8 @@ void TerrainRenderer::uploadPreloadedTextures(
         textureCacheBytes_ += e.approxBytes;
         textureCache[key] = std::move(e);
     }
+
+    vkCtx->endUploadBatch();
 }
 
 VkTexture* TerrainRenderer::createAlphaTexture(const std::vector<uint8_t>& alphaData) {

src/rendering/vk_context.cpp

@@ -67,6 +67,14 @@ void VkContext::shutdown() {
         frame = {};
     }
 
+    // Clean up any in-flight async upload batches (device already idle)
+    for (auto& batch : inFlightBatches_) {
+        // Staging buffers: skip destroy — allocator is about to be torn down
+        vkDestroyFence(device, batch.fence, nullptr);
+        // Command buffer freed when pool is destroyed below
+    }
+    inFlightBatches_.clear();
+
     if (immFence) { vkDestroyFence(device, immFence, nullptr); immFence = VK_NULL_HANDLE; }
     if (immCommandPool) { vkDestroyCommandPool(device, immCommandPool, nullptr); immCommandPool = VK_NULL_HANDLE; }
 
@@ -1423,10 +1431,121 @@ void VkContext::endSingleTimeCommands(VkCommandBuffer cmd) {
 }
 
 void VkContext::immediateSubmit(std::function<void(VkCommandBuffer cmd)>&& function) {
+    if (inUploadBatch_) {
+        // Record into the batch command buffer — no submit, no fence wait
+        function(batchCmd_);
+        return;
+    }
     VkCommandBuffer cmd = beginSingleTimeCommands();
     function(cmd);
     endSingleTimeCommands(cmd);
 }
 
+void VkContext::beginUploadBatch() {
+    uploadBatchDepth_++;
+    if (inUploadBatch_) return; // already in a batch (nested call)
+    inUploadBatch_ = true;
+    batchCmd_ = beginSingleTimeCommands();
+}
+
+void VkContext::endUploadBatch() {
+    if (uploadBatchDepth_ <= 0) return;
+    uploadBatchDepth_--;
+    if (uploadBatchDepth_ > 0) return; // still inside an outer batch
+
+    inUploadBatch_ = false;
+
+    if (batchStagingBuffers_.empty()) {
+        // No GPU copies were recorded — skip the submit entirely.
+        vkEndCommandBuffer(batchCmd_);
+        vkFreeCommandBuffers(device, immCommandPool, 1, &batchCmd_);
+        batchCmd_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // Submit commands with a NEW fence — don't wait, let GPU work in parallel.
+    vkEndCommandBuffer(batchCmd_);
+
+    VkFenceCreateInfo fenceInfo{};
+    fenceInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_FENCE_CREATE_INFO;
+    VkFence fence = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+    vkCreateFence(device, &fenceInfo, nullptr, &fence);
+
+    VkSubmitInfo submitInfo{};
+    submitInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
+    submitInfo.commandBufferCount = 1;
+    submitInfo.pCommandBuffers = &batchCmd_;
+    vkQueueSubmit(graphicsQueue, 1, &submitInfo, fence);
+
+    // Stash everything for later cleanup when fence signals
+    InFlightBatch batch;
+    batch.fence = fence;
+    batch.cmd = batchCmd_;
+    batch.stagingBuffers = std::move(batchStagingBuffers_);
+    inFlightBatches_.push_back(std::move(batch));
+
+    batchCmd_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+    batchStagingBuffers_.clear();
+}
+
+void VkContext::endUploadBatchSync() {
+    if (uploadBatchDepth_ <= 0) return;
+    uploadBatchDepth_--;
+    if (uploadBatchDepth_ > 0) return;
+
+    inUploadBatch_ = false;
+
+    if (batchStagingBuffers_.empty()) {
+        vkEndCommandBuffer(batchCmd_);
+        vkFreeCommandBuffers(device, immCommandPool, 1, &batchCmd_);
+        batchCmd_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // Synchronous path for load screens — submit and wait
+    endSingleTimeCommands(batchCmd_);
+    batchCmd_ = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+
+    for (auto& staging : batchStagingBuffers_) {
+        destroyBuffer(allocator, staging);
+    }
+    batchStagingBuffers_.clear();
+}
+
+void VkContext::pollUploadBatches() {
+    if (inFlightBatches_.empty()) return;
+
+    for (auto it = inFlightBatches_.begin(); it != inFlightBatches_.end(); ) {
+        VkResult result = vkGetFenceStatus(device, it->fence);
+        if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
+            // GPU finished — free resources
+            for (auto& staging : it->stagingBuffers) {
+                destroyBuffer(allocator, staging);
+            }
+            vkFreeCommandBuffers(device, immCommandPool, 1, &it->cmd);
+            vkDestroyFence(device, it->fence, nullptr);
+            it = inFlightBatches_.erase(it);
+        } else {
+            ++it;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void VkContext::waitAllUploads() {
+    for (auto& batch : inFlightBatches_) {
+        vkWaitForFences(device, 1, &batch.fence, VK_TRUE, UINT64_MAX);
+        for (auto& staging : batch.stagingBuffers) {
+            destroyBuffer(allocator, staging);
+        }
+        vkFreeCommandBuffers(device, immCommandPool, 1, &batch.cmd);
+        vkDestroyFence(device, batch.fence, nullptr);
+    }
+    inFlightBatches_.clear();
+}
+
+void VkContext::deferStagingCleanup(AllocatedBuffer staging) {
+    batchStagingBuffers_.push_back(staging);
+}
+
 } // namespace rendering
 } // namespace wowee

src/rendering/vk_texture.cpp

@@ -96,7 +96,11 @@ bool VkTexture::upload(VkContext& ctx, const uint8_t* pixels, uint32_t width, ui
         generateMipmaps(ctx, format, width, height);
     }
 
-    destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    if (ctx.isInUploadBatch()) {
+        ctx.deferStagingCleanup(staging);
+    } else {
+        destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    }
     return true;
 }
 
@@ -162,7 +166,11 @@ bool VkTexture::uploadMips(VkContext& ctx, const uint8_t* const* mipData,
             VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_FRAGMENT_SHADER_BIT);
     });
 
-    destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    if (ctx.isInUploadBatch()) {
+        ctx.deferStagingCleanup(staging);
+    } else {
+        destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    }
     return true;
 }
 

src/rendering/vk_utils.cpp

@@ -198,8 +198,12 @@ AllocatedBuffer uploadBuffer(VkContext& ctx, const void* data, VkDeviceSize size
         vkCmdCopyBuffer(cmd, staging.buffer, gpuBuffer.buffer, 1, &copyRegion);
     });
 
-    // Destroy staging buffer
+    // Destroy staging buffer (deferred if in batch mode)
-    destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    if (ctx.isInUploadBatch()) {
+        ctx.deferStagingCleanup(staging);
+    } else {
+        destroyBuffer(ctx.getAllocator(), staging);
+    }
 
     return gpuBuffer;
 }

src/rendering/wmo_renderer.cpp

@@ -419,6 +419,10 @@ bool WMORenderer::loadModel(const pipeline::WMOModel& model, uint32_t id) {
     core::Logger::getInstance().debug("  WMO bounds: min=(", model.boundingBoxMin.x, ", ", model.boundingBoxMin.y, ", ", model.boundingBoxMin.z,
                                       ") max=(", model.boundingBoxMax.x, ", ", model.boundingBoxMax.y, ", ", model.boundingBoxMax.z, ")");
 
+    // Batch all GPU uploads (textures, VBs, IBs) into a single command buffer
+    // submission with one fence wait, instead of one per upload.
+    vkCtx_->beginUploadBatch();
+
     // Load textures for this model
     core::Logger::getInstance().debug("  WMO has ", model.textures.size(), " texture paths, ", model.materials.size(), " materials");
     if (assetManager && !model.textures.empty()) {
@@ -720,6 +724,8 @@ bool WMORenderer::loadModel(const pipeline::WMOModel& model, uint32_t id) {
         groupRes.allUntextured = !anyTextured && !groupRes.mergedBatches.empty();
     }
 
+    vkCtx_->endUploadBatch();
+
     // Copy portal data for visibility culling
     modelData.portalVertices = model.portalVertices;
     for (const auto& portal : model.portals) {
@@ -2319,13 +2325,27 @@ VkTexture* WMORenderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path) {
     const auto& attemptedCandidates = uniqueCandidates;
 
     // Try loading all candidates until one succeeds
+    // Check pre-decoded BLP cache first (populated by background worker threads)
     pipeline::BLPImage blp;
     std::string resolvedKey;
-    for (const auto& c : attemptedCandidates) {
+    if (predecodedBLPCache_) {
-        blp = assetManager->loadTexture(c);
+        for (const auto& c : uniqueCandidates) {
-        if (blp.isValid()) {
+            auto pit = predecodedBLPCache_->find(c);
-            resolvedKey = c;
+            if (pit != predecodedBLPCache_->end()) {
-            break;
+                blp = std::move(pit->second);
+                predecodedBLPCache_->erase(pit);
+                resolvedKey = c;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if (!blp.isValid()) {
+        for (const auto& c : attemptedCandidates) {
+            blp = assetManager->loadTexture(c);
+            if (blp.isValid()) {
+                resolvedKey = c;
+                break;
+            }
         }
     }
     if (!blp.isValid()) {
@@ -2363,10 +2383,10 @@ VkTexture* WMORenderer::loadTexture(const std::string& path) {
     texture->createSampler(vkCtx_->getDevice(), VK_FILTER_LINEAR, VK_FILTER_LINEAR,
                             VK_SAMPLER_ADDRESS_MODE_REPEAT);
 
-    // Generate normal+height map from diffuse pixels
+    // Generate normal+height map from diffuse pixels (skip during streaming to avoid CPU stalls)
     float nhVariance = 0.0f;
     std::unique_ptr<VkTexture> nhMap;
-    if (normalMappingEnabled_ || pomEnabled_) {
+    if ((normalMappingEnabled_ || pomEnabled_) && !deferNormalMaps_) {
         nhMap = generateNormalHeightMap(blp.data.data(), blp.width, blp.height, nhVariance);
         if (nhMap) {
             approxBytes *= 2;  // account for normal map in budget